ARTICLE
CONTENTS:
Types of
Stalkers
Violent
vs. Non-violent
Cases
that Began Offline
Cases
that Began Online
|
|
In this multi-part article, we will
consider some of the literature on stalkers in terms of what
is known or hypothesized about any psychopathology
*
and then we will turn
to some examples of from actual cyberstalking cases. To
navigate to different sections or pages in this article, use
the menu in the left margin of the page.
Part I. Psychopathology of
Stalkers
Some of the original research on
offline stalkers, such as that by Zona et al. (1993)
described three subtypes of stalkers. These subtypes are
described below, but is important to note that any one
individual stalker may have more than one problem or
condition that determines their stalking behaviour and
choice of victim.
Simple Obsessional
Stalkers:
Simple obsessional stalkers are
known to the victim. The stalker may be a former
lover, an ex-spouse, or someone with whom the victim
worked. Simple obsessional stalkers are thought to
comprise the largest of the three categories,
accounting for 47% of offline stalkers (Geberth,
1992).
These individuals presumably
stalk out of anger or hate or to obtain revenge for
some real or imagined slight, but as the victims in
the Tjaden and Thoennes study suggested, the
motivation may be to control the victim or to keep the
victim in the previous relationship.
Obsessional stalkers may use or
exhibit a number of defense mechanisms, and denial,
devaluation, and projecting blame onto the victim are
just some defense mechanisms discussed in the
literature. They are also thought to represent the
greatest threat of physical violence to their victims.
Such individuals are reportedly more likely to have a
personality disorder related to attachment pathology
and less likely to have an antisocial personality
disorder when compared to other offenders with mental
disorders. They are also likely to be older, smarter,
and better educated when compared to other types of
offenders with mental disorders (Meloy & Gothard,
1995). Morrison (2001) reported on 100 Canadian males
who had been arrested for criminal harassment
(stalking). The typical profile of the "simple
obsessional" stalker in their study was a middle-aged
male who was separated or estranged, and who had a
history of anger management or emotional problems.
Roberts (2002) surveyed
undergraduate female students who had terminated
heterosexual romantic relationships. One objective of
the study was to determine how ex-partners who stalked
were different from ex-partners who harassed but did
not stalk and ex-partners who neither stalked nor
harassed. The responses of the participants indicated
that ex-partners who stalked were most likely
to have histories of substance use (alcohol and/or
drugs), criminal involvement, violence, mental health
problems, difficulties in forming relationships,
reacting with inappropriate emotion and jealousy,
and/or suspiciousness of their partner's relationships
with others.
Love Obsessional
Stalkers:
Love-obsessional stalkers
generally do not have any prior relationship with the
victim, and may engage in behaviours like telephone
calls, letters or other forms of communication, and/or
may show up in places where the victim is likely to be
found. A significant number of these individuals may
be suffering from a mental disorder such as
schizophrenia or bipolar disorder.
Love obsessional stalkers are
thought to comprise the second largest group (43%) of
offline stalkers (Geberth, 1992).
Erotomanic
Stalkers:
Erotomanic stalkers have an
imagined or delusional fixation on their victim, who
is usually of a higher social class or status (such as
a celebrity). The erotomanic stalker believes that
their victim is in love with them or that they have
some kind of romantic or spiritual connection.
Erotomania is sometimes referred to as de
Clerembault's syndrome.
Erotomanic stalkers are
delusional, and the available research suggests that
they are likely to be female. While the majority of
the early literature on offline stalking seems to
focus on erotomania as the most prolific type, some
investigators suggest that there is little support for
this stalker type as the most prevalent (Geberth,
1992; Harmon, Rosner & Owens, 1995; Zona et al.
1993).
Gender
Differences
Research by Purcell et al.
(2001) compared 40 female stalkers to 150 male
stalkers in terms of psychopathology, behaviour, and
likelihood of violence. More of the male stalkers had
a history of criminal offenses and substance abuse,
but the samples were alike in other characteristics
such as the duration of stalking and frequency of
associated violence. The two groups differed in the
nature of the prior relationship with the victim
differed: female stalkers were more likely to stalk
professional contacts in the helping professions with
whom they had had prior contact and were less likely
to harass strangers than male stalkers. Female
stalkers were also more likely to pursue same-gender
victims than male stalkers.
The two sexes also differed in
terms of their motivation: the motivation for female
stalkers was more likely to relate to establishing
intimacy with the target whereas male stalkers had a
more varied range of motivations.
Other
Ways of Classifying Stalkers (Typologies)
Mullen, Pathé et al. (1999)
studied 145 stalkers referred to a forensic psychiatry unit
for treatment. Most of the stalkers were men (79%) and many
were unemployed (39%). Over half of the stalkers (52%) had
never had an intimate relationship. Victims included
ex-partners (30%), professional (23%) or work (11%)
contacts, and strangers (14%). Based on their assessments,
the authors identified five types of stalkers: rejected
stalkers, intimacy seeking stalkers, incompetent suitors,
resentful stalkers, and predatory stalkers. As described in
their subsequent book, which was based on 200 cases:
Rejected
stalkers are motivated by a desire for
reconciliation and/or revenge. In the rejected stalker
subtype, personality disorders predominated. Rejected
stalkers were predominantly male, accounted for
slightly over one third of all stalkers in the sample,
and were viewed as the most persistent and intrusive
stalkers.
Intimacy-seeking
stalkers identify their victim as their true
love and often imagine that their victim reciprocates
their feelings. Intimacy-seeking stalkers accounted
for one third of the entire sample. Although
delusional disorders were fairly common (30%) in the
entire sample, they were particularly among
intimacy-seeking stalkers. Like rejected stalkers,
intimacy-seeking stalkers tended to stalk their
victims for significantly longer periods of time than
other types of stalkers.
Incompetent
stalkers, who comprised 15% of the sample,
are described as those whose stalking is maintained by
hopefulness that their victim will be "won
over." Such stalkers usually do not persist
for long, but many may then switch over to another
victim and repeat the process.
Resentful
stalkers, who constituted 11% of the sample,
are generally aggravated employees or those who feel
that they have been mistreated or humiliated. They may
pick one person to focus on and stalking that person
makes them feel powerful. Despite being confronted
with their behavior and its inappropriateness, they
are likely to maintain that they are the one being
persecuted, and they are very noncompliant with or
resistant to treatment. Threats and property damage
were more frequent with resentful stalkers, but
rejected and predatory stalkers committed more
assaults on the person.
Predatory
stalkers, who made up only 4% of the sample,
are those who stalk in preparation for physical or
sexual assault. They are likely to have histories of
criminal sexual convictions, and require treatment
appropriate to sex offenders.
"Stalkers have a range of
motivations, from reasserting power over a partner
who rejected them to the quest for a loving
relationship. Most stalkers are lonely and socially
incompetent, but all have the capacity to frighten
and distress their victims. Bringing stalking to an
end requires a mixture of appropriate legal
sanctions and therapeutic interventions."
-- Mullen,
Pathé et al. (1999)
|
More recently, Lewis, Fremouw et al.
(2001) compared self-reported stalkers to a control group on
measures of empathy, problem-solving skills, attachment, and
borderline personality features. Stalkers demonstrated
significantly higher scores on measures of insecure
attachment and borderline personality features, and the
authors suggested that as a group, stalkers display a
general pattern of inadequate interpersonal attachment and a
limited ability to form and maintain appropriate
relationships. They are also more emotionally labile
(variable) and unstable.
Continue
to Next Page in This Article -->
Footnote:
Complete citations for articles
referenced in this section can be found in the companion
bibliography
of research articles and books on stalking. You may also
wish to read the full-text articles available online by
Karen Abrams, M.D. (both of her articles are linked from the
bibliography section).
Top
|