ARTICLE
\r\n CONTENTS:<\/strong>\r\n \r\n Types of\r\n Stalkers\r\n \r\n <\/p>
Violent\r\n vs. Non-violent\r\n \r\n <\/p>
Cases\r\n that Began Offline\r\n \r\n <\/p>
Cases\r\n that Began Online\r\n \r\n <\/p>
\r\n <\/p><\/td>\r\n <\/tr>\r\n <\/table>\r\n \r\n <\/td>\r\n
\r\n \r\n \r\n <\/p> In this multi-part article, we will\r\n consider some of the literature on stalkers in terms of what\r\n is known or hypothesized about any psychopathology\r\n *\r\n and then we will turn\r\n to some examples of from actual cyberstalking cases. To\r\n navigate to different sections or pages in this article, use\r\n the menu in the left margin of the page. \r\n \r\n <\/p> Part I. Psychopathology of\r\n Stalkers <\/strong>\r\n \r\n <\/p>Some of the original research on\r\n offline stalkers, such as that by Zona et al. (1993)\r\n described three subtypes of stalkers. These subtypes are\r\n described below, but is important to note that any one\r\n individual stalker may have more than one problem or\r\n condition that determines their stalking behaviour and\r\n choice of victim.\r\n \r\n \r\n Simple Obsessional\r\n Stalkers:<\/strong>\r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n Simple obsessional stalkers are\r\n known to the victim. The stalker may be a former\r\n lover, an ex-spouse, or someone with whom the victim\r\n worked. Simple obsessional stalkers are thought to\r\n comprise the largest of the three categories,\r\n accounting for 47% of offline stalkers (Geberth,\r\n 1992). \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n These individuals presumably\r\n stalk out of anger or hate or to obtain revenge for\r\n some real or imagined slight, but as the victims in\r\n the Tjaden and Thoennes study suggested, the\r\n motivation may be to control the victim or to keep the\r\n victim in the previous relationship. \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n Obsessional stalkers may use or\r\n exhibit a number of defense mechanisms, and denial,\r\n devaluation, and projecting blame onto the victim are\r\n just some defense mechanisms discussed in the\r\n literature. They are also thought to represent the\r\n greatest threat of physical violence to their victims.\r\n Such individuals are reportedly more likely to have a\r\n personality disorder related to attachment pathology\r\n and less likely to have an antisocial personality\r\n disorder when compared to other offenders with mental\r\n disorders. They are also likely to be older, smarter,\r\n and better educated when compared to other types of\r\n offenders with mental disorders (Meloy & Gothard,\r\n 1995). Morrison (2001) reported on 100 Canadian males\r\n who had been arrested for criminal harassment\r\n (stalking). The typical profile of the \"simple\r\n obsessional\" stalker in their study was a middle-aged\r\n male who was separated or estranged, and who had a\r\n history of anger management or emotional problems.\r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n Roberts (2002) surveyed\r\n undergraduate female students who had terminated\r\n heterosexual romantic relationships. One objective of\r\n the study was to determine how ex-partners who stalked\r\n were different from ex-partners who harassed but did\r\n not stalk and ex-partners who neither stalked nor\r\n harassed. The responses of the participants indicated\r\n that ex-partners who stalked were most likely\r\n to have histories of substance use (alcohol and\/or\r\n drugs), criminal involvement, violence, mental health\r\n problems, difficulties in forming relationships,\r\n reacting with inappropriate emotion and jealousy,\r\n and\/or suspiciousness of their partner's relationships\r\n with others.\r\n \r\n \r\n <\/p>Love Obsessional\r\n Stalkers:<\/strong>\r\n \r\n \r\n Love-obsessional stalkers\r\n generally do not have any prior relationship with the\r\n victim, and may engage in behaviours like telephone\r\n calls, letters or other forms of communication, and\/or\r\n may show up in places where the victim is likely to be\r\n found. A significant number of these individuals may\r\n be suffering from a mental disorder such as\r\n schizophrenia or bipolar disorder.\r\n \r\n <\/p>Love obsessional stalkers are\r\n thought to comprise the second largest group (43%) of\r\n offline stalkers (Geberth, 1992).\r\n \r\n \r\n <\/p> Erotomanic\r\n Stalkers:<\/strong>\r\n \r\n \r\n Erotomanic stalkers have an\r\n imagined or delusional fixation on their victim, who\r\n is usually of a higher social class or status (such as\r\n a celebrity). The erotomanic stalker believes that\r\n their victim is in love with them or that they have\r\n some kind of romantic or spiritual connection.\r\n Erotomania is sometimes referred to as de\r\n Clerembault's syndrome.\r\n \r\n <\/p>Erotomanic stalkers are\r\n delusional, and the available research suggests that\r\n they are likely to be female. While the majority of\r\n the early literature on offline stalking seems to\r\n focus on erotomania as the most prolific type, some\r\n investigators suggest that there is little support for\r\n this stalker type as the most prevalent (Geberth,\r\n 1992; Harmon, Rosner & Owens, 1995; Zona et al.\r\n 1993).\r\n \r\n \r\n <\/p> Gender\r\n Differences<\/strong>\r\n \r\n \r\n Research by Purcell et al.\r\n (2001) compared 40 female stalkers to 150 male\r\n stalkers in terms of psychopathology, behaviour, and\r\n likelihood of violence. More of the male stalkers had\r\n a history of criminal offenses and substance abuse,\r\n but the samples were alike in other characteristics\r\n such as the duration of stalking and frequency of\r\n associated violence. The two groups differed in the\r\n nature of the prior relationship with the victim\r\n differed: female stalkers were more likely to stalk\r\n professional contacts in the helping professions with\r\n whom they had had prior contact and were less likely\r\n to harass strangers than male stalkers. Female\r\n stalkers were also more likely to pursue same-gender\r\n victims than male stalkers.\r\n \r\n <\/p>The two sexes also differed in\r\n terms of their motivation: the motivation for female\r\n stalkers was more likely to relate to establishing\r\n intimacy with the target whereas male stalkers had a\r\n more varied range of motivations.\r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n <\/p> Other\r\n Ways of Classifying Stalkers (Typologies)<\/strong>\r\n \r\n <\/p>Mullen, Pathé et al. (1999)\r\n studied 145 stalkers referred to a forensic psychiatry unit\r\n for treatment. Most of the stalkers were men (79%) and many\r\n were unemployed (39%). Over half of the stalkers (52%) had\r\n never had an intimate relationship. Victims included\r\n ex-partners (30%), professional (23%) or work (11%)\r\n contacts, and strangers (14%). Based on their assessments,\r\n the authors identified five types of stalkers: rejected\r\n stalkers, intimacy seeking stalkers, incompetent suitors,\r\n resentful stalkers, and predatory stalkers. As described in\r\n their subsequent book, which was based on 200 cases: \r\n \r\n \r\n Rejected\r\n stalkers<\/strong> are motivated by a desire for\r\n reconciliation and\/or revenge. In the rejected stalker\r\n subtype, personality disorders predominated. Rejected\r\n stalkers were predominantly male, accounted for\r\n slightly over one third of all stalkers in the sample,\r\n and were viewed as the most persistent and intrusive\r\n stalkers.\r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n Intimacy-seeking\r\n stalkers<\/strong> identify their victim as their true\r\n love and often imagine that their victim reciprocates\r\n their feelings. Intimacy-seeking stalkers accounted\r\n for one third of the entire sample. Although\r\n delusional disorders were fairly common (30%) in the\r\n entire sample, they were particularly among\r\n intimacy-seeking stalkers. Like rejected stalkers,\r\n intimacy-seeking stalkers tended to stalk their\r\n victims for significantly longer periods of time than\r\n other types of stalkers. \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n Incompetent\r\n stalkers<\/strong>, who comprised 15% of the sample,\r\n are described as those whose stalking is maintained by\r\n hopefulness that their victim will be \"won\r\n over.\" Such stalkers usually do not persist\r\n for long, but many may then switch over to another\r\n victim and repeat the process.\r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n Resentful\r\n stalkers<\/strong>, who constituted 11% of the sample,\r\n are generally aggravated employees or those who feel\r\n that they have been mistreated or humiliated. They may\r\n pick one person to focus on and stalking that person\r\n makes them feel powerful. Despite being confronted\r\n with their behavior and its inappropriateness, they\r\n are likely to maintain that they are the one being\r\n persecuted, and they are very noncompliant with or\r\n resistant to treatment. Threats and property damage\r\n were more frequent with resentful stalkers, but\r\n rejected and predatory stalkers committed more\r\n assaults on the person.\r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n Predatory\r\n stalkers<\/strong>, who made up only 4% of the sample,\r\n are those who stalk in preparation for physical or\r\n sexual assault. They are likely to have histories of\r\n criminal sexual convictions, and require treatment\r\n appropriate to sex offenders.\r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n <\/p>\r\n \r\n | \r\n \"Stalkers have a range of\r\n motivations, from reasserting power over a partner\r\n who rejected them to the quest for a loving\r\n relationship. Most stalkers are lonely and socially\r\n incompetent, but all have the capacity to frighten\r\n and distress their victims. Bringing stalking to an\r\n end requires a mixture of appropriate legal\r\n sanctions and therapeutic interventions.\"\r\n \r\n <\/p> -- Mullen,\r\n Pathé et al. (1999)\r\n <\/p><\/td>\r\n <\/tr>\r\n <\/table>\r\n \r\n \r\n More recently, Lewis, Fremouw et al.\r\n (2001) compared self-reported stalkers to a control group on\r\n measures of empathy, problem-solving skills, attachment, and\r\n borderline personality features. Stalkers demonstrated\r\n significantly higher scores on measures of insecure\r\n attachment and borderline personality features, and the\r\n authors suggested that as a group, stalkers display a\r\n general pattern of inadequate interpersonal attachment and a\r\n limited ability to form and maintain appropriate\r\n relationships. They are also more emotionally labile\r\n (variable) and unstable. \r\n \r\n <\/p> Continue\r\n to Next Page in This Article --> <\/strong>\r\n \r\n <\/p>\r\n \r\n <\/p>
\r\n \r\n Footnote:\r\n \r\n Complete citations for articles\r\n referenced in this section can be found in the companion\r\n bibliography\r\n of research articles and books on stalking. You may also\r\n wish to read the full-text articles available online by\r\n Karen Abrams, M.D. (both of her articles are linked from the\r\n bibliography section).\r\n \r\n Top<\/strong>\r\n \r\n <\/p>\r\n <\/p><\/td>\r\n <\/tr>\r\n \r\n | \r\n \r\n <\/p><\/td>\r\n | \r\n OVERVIEW<\/strong>\r\n <\/td>\r\n \r\n TIPS<\/strong>\r\n <\/td>\r\n \r\n PATHOLOGY<\/strong>\r\n <\/td>\r\n \r\n NEWS<\/strong>\r\n <\/td>\r\n \r\n LAW<\/strong>\r\n <\/td>\r\n \r\n IMPACT<\/strong>\r\n <\/td>\r\n \r\n THERAPISTS<\/strong>\r\n <\/td>\r\n \r\n RESOURCES<\/strong>\r\n <\/td>\r\n \r\n SEARCH<\/strong>\r\n <\/td>\r\n <\/tr>\r\n | \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n © Copyright\r\n 2001, 2002, 2003 ~ All rights reserved ~ http:\/\/www.cyber-stalking.net\r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n <\/p><\/td>\r\n <\/tr>\r\n<\/table>\r\n \n","contact":"","link":"http:\/\/www.cyber-stalking.net\/psychopathology.htm","address":"","phone":"","parent_id":0,"mime_type":"text\/html","summary":"Erotomanic stalkers are delusional, and the available research suggests that they are likely to be female. While the majority of the early literature on offline stalking seems to focus on erotomania as the most prolific type, some investigators suggest that there is little support for this stalker type as the most prevalent (Geberth, 1992; Harmon, Rosner & Owens, 1995; Zona et al. 1993). ","numcomment":0,"fileurl":"\/uploads\/","filesize":null,"article_url":"\/news\/2003\/07\/68759.php"},"attachments":[],"comments":[]} | | | | | | | | | | | |